Overview of Ichthyosaurs The Fish Lizards

Theres an important concept in biology known as convergent evolution: animals that occupy similar evolutionary niches tend to adopt roughly similar forms. Ichthyosaurs (pronounced ICK-thee-oh-sores) are an excellent example: starting about 200 million years ago, these marine reptiles evolved body plans (and behavioral patterns) strikingly similar to those of the modern dolphins and bluefin tuna that populate the worlds oceans today. Ichthyosaurs (Greek for fish lizards) were similar to dolphins in another, perhaps even more telling way. Its believed that these undersea predators evolved from a population of archosaurs (the family of terrestrial reptiles that preceded the dinosaurs) that ventured back into the water during the early Triassic period. Analogously, dolphins and whales can trace their descent to ancient, four-legged prehistoric mammals (like Pakicetus) that gradually evolved in an aquatic direction. The First Ichthyosaurs Anatomically speaking, its relatively easy to distinguish the early ichthyosaurs of the Mesozoic Era from more advanced genera. The ichthyosaurs of the middle to late Triassic period, such as Grippia, Utatsusaurus, and Cymbospondylus, tended to lack dorsal (back) fins and the streamlined, hydrodynamic body shapes of later members of the breed. (Some paleontologists doubt that these reptiles were true ichthyosaurs at all, and hedge their bets by calling them proto-ichthyosaurs or ichthyopterygians.) Most early ichthyosaurs were fairly small, but there were exceptions: the gigantic Shonisaurus, the state fossil of Nevada, may have attained lengths of 60 or 70 feet! Although the exact evolutionary relationships are far from certain, theres some evidence that the appropriately named Mixosaurus may have been a transitional form between early and later ichthyosaurs. As reflected by its name (Greek for mixed lizard), this marine reptile combined some primitive features of early ichthyosaurs—a downward-pointing, relatively inflexible tail, and short flippers—with the sleeker shape and (presumably) faster swimming style of their later descendants. Also, unlike the case for most ichthyosaurs, fossils of Mixosaurus have been discovered all over the world, a clue that this marine reptile must have been especially well-adapted to its environment. Trends in Ichthyosaur Evolution The early to middle Jurassic period (about 200 to 175 million years ago) was the golden age of ichthyosaurs, witnessing important genera like Ichthyosaurus, which is represented today by hundreds of fossils, as well as the closely related Stenopterygius. Besides their streamlined shapes, these marine reptiles were distinguished by their solid ear bones (which conveyed subtle vibrations in the water created by the movement of prey) and large eyes (the eyeballs of one genus, Ophthalmosaurus, were four inches wide). By the end of the Jurassic period, most ichthyosaurs had gone extinct—though one genus, Platypterygius, survived into the early Cretaceous period, possibly because it had evolved the ability to feed omnivorously (one fossil specimen of this ichthyosaur harbors the remains of birds and baby turtles). Why did the ichthyosaurs vanish from the worlds oceans? The answer may lie in the evolution of speedier prehistoric fish (which were able to avoid being eaten), as well as better-adapted marine reptiles like plesiosaurs and mosasaurs. However, a recent discovery may throw a monkey wrench into accepted theories about ichthyosaur evolution. Malawania plied the oceans of central Asia during the early Cretaceous period, and it retained the primitive, dolphin-like body plan of genera that lived tens of millions of years before. Clearly, if Malawania could prosper with such a basal anatomy, not all ichthyosaurs were out-competed by other marine reptiles, and well have to adduce other reasons for their disappearance. Lifestyles and Behavior Despite the resemblance of some species to dolphins or bluefin tuna, its important to remember that ichthyosaurs were reptiles, and not mammals or fish. All of these animals did, however, share a similar set of adaptations to their marine environment. Like dolphins, most ichthyosaurs are believed to have given birth to live young, rather than laying eggs like contemporary land-bound reptiles. (How do we know this? The specimens of some ichthyosaurs, like Temnodontosaurus, were fossilized in the act of giving birth.) Finally, for all their fish-like characteristics, ichthyosaurs possessed lungs, not gills--and therefore had to surface on a regular basis for gulps of air. Its easy to imagine schools of, say, Excalibosaurus frolicking above the Jurassic waves, perhaps sparring with one another with their swordfish-like snouts (an adaptation evolved by some ichthyosaurs to spear any unfortunate fish in their path).

Should Punishment Be Punished For The Crime - 1866 Words

Punishment can be described as ‘a legally approved method designed to facilitate the task of crime control’ (Garland, 1990: 18). According to the criminal justice act 2003 the aims of punishment are to punish the offender for their wrongdoing; to reduce crime; to reform and rehabilitate offenders; to protect the public and for offenders to make amends to the person/persons affected by their offences. There are many philosophical justifications as to what the purpose of punishment should be. The two most cited justifications are known as the retributivist and reductivist approaches to punishment. The retributivist approach looks at past events and states that wrongdoers should be punished for the crime they have committed, because they deserve to be punished for it. Retributivism originates form the Latin retribuo, ‘I pay back’, suggesting that an offenders punishment should be equivalent to the crime they have committed. Retributivists believe that offenders must be punished because they have carried out actions that are illegal, and that the severity of the punishment must be matched to that of the seriousness of the crime. The reductivist approach, which can also be named the utilarian approach, looks at punishment as forward looking and justifies punishment on the grounds of its alleged future consequences. For utilitarians, consequences are assessed by reference to people’s mental state or happiness. This means that punishment is not justified and to quote Bentham, ‘inShow MoreRelatedThe Death Penalty Is Justified1248 Words   |  5 PagesExecutions have occurred in many forms for thousands of years. From Roman crucifixion to American lethal injection, capital punishments have one common goal: to offer retribution to a guilty party. However, in recent years, the death penalty has come under intense scrutiny. There are a great number of people who believe it should be abolished entirely and some who believe it should be used only in the most humane ways. In this paper, I will argue that the death penalty is justifiable in cases whereRead MoreArgument Against The Death Penalty1247 Wor ds   |  5 Pagessomebody who has taken somebody else’s life is simply immoral.† When considering the issue of capital punishment, many arguments are made in favor of proponents and abolitionists. There are utilitarian arguments, retributive arguments, and egalitarian arguments. Utilitarian arguments argue against the death penalty, for they look to punish criminals for the benefit and the â€Å"lesson learned† from the punishment. 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Raquel Browning, a private investigator †Creative Writing Free Essays

Raquel Browning, a private investigator, sat at the window and watched him walk past. His head was lowered, and his right hand held his overcoat fixed firmly against the wind. She watched him until he was out of her range of sight, then she picked up the telephone. We will write a custom essay sample on Raquel Browning, a private investigator – Creative Writing or any similar topic only for you Order Now Across the river, on the other side of town, the phone rang once, then again before Mrs Clifford reached over and placed the receiver next to her ear. â€Å"Hello,† she said tentatively. â€Å"I have some news,† came the response from Raquel. â€Å"Go ahead,† Mrs Clifford said as she closed the parlour door. â€Å"He spent the night in a hotel named ‘The Lion’s Den’ with a brunette woman whose name was ‘Laura’. They dined earlier in the hotel restaurant before retiring to their room. He left at nine o’clock this morning.† â€Å"Is that all?† Mrs Clifford asked. â€Å"Yes, that is all Ma’am; I will have another update soon.† Mrs Clifford listened as the phone was hung up on the other end, and then replaced the receiver. She glanced at the painting on the wall above her. It was of Patrick when he was a little younger. His eyes seemed to pierce hers, and for a second, she almost felt guilty about having him followed. Raquel caught up with him a few blocks from the hotel. As she was trained, she stayed out of his view. She watched as he entered a coffee shop, and then entered the shop after two more people had gone in. She found a table close to Patrick and listened to him order a cappuccino, then the rustle of the newspaper pages as he read it. He didn’t seem to be going anywhere, so she ordered an orange juice. After ten minutes, Raquel saw Laura, the woman he had spent the night with, walk into the coffee shop, and after glancing behind her at the street, slide into the seat beside Patrick. â€Å"Were you followed?† Raquel heard Patrick say. â€Å"No,† replied Laura. After that, Patrick and Laura became seemingly oblivious to the world, and started kissing. Raquel rose, paid for her orange juice, and exited the shop. Once she was outside, she crossed the street, turned and took out her camera. She took a quick series of photos of Patrick and Laura, and then put away the camera. Mrs Clifford would be happy she thought, well, as happy as possible. She had proof now, and that’s what Mrs Clifford had paid her for. She went home, developed the photos, and placed them in a blank envelope. She addressed the envelope, and then posted the letter. ‘A job well done’, the Private Investigator thought as she tucked her hands into her pockets and started to walk home. Mrs Clifford opened the envelope, and pulled out the photographs. There were six in total, all showing Patrick and Laura in various stages of canoodling. Mrs Clifford’s face darkened as she looked at each one. ‘How could he? In public?’ she thought as the maid, Jenkins walked into the room. She hastily pushed the photographs into the envelope again. The last thing she needed was the staff to be talking about this. â€Å"Tea, Mrs Clifford?† asked Miss Jenkins. â€Å"Yes, Thankyou.† Miss Jenkins poured the tea into a bone china teacup and handed it to Mrs Clifford. Mrs Clifford pulled the photographs out of the envelope again, as Miss Jenkins left the room, and looked at them as she sipped her tea. Mrs Clifford recognised this woman ‘Laura’. She worked in Patrick’s office. The photographs were not enough. She needed to know more. Mrs Clifford picked up the telephone and dialled. â€Å"Browning Private Investigators,† Raquel answered the phone. â€Å"Good Afternoon. It’s Mrs Clifford.† â€Å"Good Afternoon Mrs Clifford. I trust you received the photographs? How can I help you?† â€Å"I received the photographs, and they were good, but now I need more.† â€Å"More, Mrs Clifford?† The Private Investigator asked. â€Å"Yes, more. I need to know more about Patrick and this ‘Laura’ woman. I will pay you double the amount I payed you last time.† â€Å"Mrs Clifford, I would be pleased to help you,† Raquel responded. She listened as Mrs Clifford said, â€Å"Well then we’re settled,† and hung up. The private investigator wouldn’t have taken this job for just anyone, but Mrs Clifford had money to burn, and the private investigator had a hole in her pocket. She grabbed her backpack which had all of her equipment in it, and set off to find Patrick. Raquel found him an hour later, in a shopping mall. He was in a lingerie store, but she couldn’t see Laura anywhere. She continued to watch as Patrick looked through all the different things that the shop had to sell. She was taking pictures of this when Laura appeared from one of the change rooms. She walked over to Patrick and exchanged some words, and then Patrick gave her a lacy outfit to try on, kissed her, and left the store. The private investigator was still snapping photographs when he stopped at a jewellery store. She continued taking photographs as he walked up to the counter, and briefly spoke to the saleswoman. The saleswoman disappeared into a back room, and the private investigator stopped taking photographs to replace the film. Once she had done that, she started taking photographs as the saleswoman reappeared with a box in her hand. The saleswoman opened the box revealing a diamond ring. Patrick nodded, and then paid. The private investigator smiled. Mrs Clifford would be happy with her work. She left, and posted the photographs. Mrs Clifford answered the door when Patrick arrived. He had Laura with him. Mrs Clifford already knew what she was about to hear, thanks to the private investigator. She wasn’t sure she liked it, but she really had no choice in the matter. She waited for Patrick to say something, and when it came, it was not a surprise. â€Å"Hi mother,† he said, â€Å"I’d like to introduce my fiancà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½e, Laura.† Mrs Clifford smiled as she welcomed her son and future daughter-in-law inside. How to cite Raquel Browning, a private investigator – Creative Writing, Papers